AP Chemistry Syllabus What Does It Cover

AP Chemistry Syllabus What Does It Cover SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What does an AP Chemistry syllabus look like? How many labs do you have to do? And what skills are you expected to learn before the test? In this article, I'll take an in-depth look at the components of a successful AP Chemistry syllabus, including content coverage, lab work, and overall curriculum requirements. I'll also give an example of a full syllabus (based on a sample from the College Board) and provide some helpful tips for both students and teachers! What Does the AP Chemistry Course Cover? AP Chemistry is a wide-ranging course. The curriculum is divided into six "Big Ideas," or major themes, that encompass long lists of smaller topics. I'll list the Big Ideas along with the smaller themes within them that the College Board calls "Enduring Understandings." These are actually broken down further into pieces of "Essential Knowledge," which (for the sake of keeping this article to a reasonable length) are not included here. There are also seven Scientific Practices that students are expected to master in the course, which I'll list after the Big Ideas. This is a part of the new inquiry-based model of AP science courses that encourages independent thinking. Finally, there are some overarching Curricular Requirements that every AP Chemistry class must fulfill, which I'll go over after the Scientific Practices. For the full course description with even more details, consult this link! The 6 Big Ideas of AP Chemistry The Big Ideas are the fundamental concepts every AP Chemistry syllabus must cover. Big Idea 1: The chemical elements are fundamental building materials of matter, and all matter can be understood in terms of arrangement of atoms. These atoms retain their identities in chemical reactions. Enduring Understanding 1.A: All matter is made of atoms. There are a limited number of types of atoms; these are the elements. EU 1.B: The atoms of each element have unique structures arising from interactions between electrons and nuclei. EU 1.C: Elements display periodicity in their properties when the elements are organized according to increasing atomic number. Periodicity is a useful principle for understanding properties and predicting trends in properties. EU 1.D: Atoms are so small that they are difficult to study directly; atomic models are constructed to explain experimental data on collections of atoms. EU 1.E: Atoms are conserved in physical and chemical processes. Big Idea 2: Chemical and physical properties of materials can be explained by the structure and arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules and the forces between them. EU 2.A: Matter can be described by its physical properties. The physical properties of a substance generally depend on the spacing between the particles (atoms, molecules, ions) that make up the substance and the forces of attraction among them. EU 2.B: Forces of attraction between particles (including the noble gases and also different parts of some large molecules) are important in determining many macroscopic properties of a substance, including how the observable physical state changes with temperature. EU 2.C: The strong electrostatic forces of attraction holding atoms together in a unit are called chemical bonds. EU 2.D: The type of bonding in the solid state can be deduced from the properties of the solid state. Big Idea 3: Changes in matter involve the rearrangement and/or reorganization of atoms and/or the transfer of electrons. EU 3.A: Chemical changes are represented by a balanced chemical equation that identifies the ratios with which reactants react and products form. EU 3.B: Chemical reactions can be classified by considering what the reactants are, what the products are, or how they change from one into the other. Classes of chemical reactions include synthesis, decomposition, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction reactions. EU 3.C: Chemical and physical transformations may be observed in several ways and typically involve a change in energy. Big Idea 4: Rates of chemical reactions are determined by details of the molecular collisions. EU 4.A: Reaction rates that depend on temperature and other environmental factors are determined by measuring changes in concentrations of reactants or products over time. EU 4.B: Elementary reactions are mediated by collisions between molecules. Only collisions having sufficient energy and proper relative orientation of reactants lead to products. EU 4.C: Many reactions proceed via a series of elementary reactions. EU 4.D: Reaction rates may be increased by the presence of a catalyst. Big Idea 5: The laws of thermodynamics describe the essential role of energy and explain and predict the direction of changes in matter. EU 5.A: Two systems with different temperatures that are in thermal contact will exchange energy. The quantity of thermal energy transferred from one system to another. EU 5.B: Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only transformed from one form to another. EU 5.C: Breaking bonds requires energy, and making bonds releases energy. EU 5.D: Electrostatic forces exist between molecules as well as between atoms or ions, and breaking the resultant intermolecular attractions requires energy. EU 5.E: Chemical or physical processes are driven by a decrease in enthalpy or an increase in entropy, or both. Big Idea 6: Any bond or intermolecular attraction that can be formed can be broken. These two processes are in a dynamic competition, sensitive to initial conditions and external perturbations. EU 6.A: Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic, reversible state in which rates of opposing processes are equal. EU 6.B: Systems at equilibrium are responsive to external perturbations, with the response leading to a change in the composition of the system. EU 6.C: Chemical equilibrium plays an important role in acid-base chemistry and in solubility. EU 6.D: The equilibrium constant is related to temperature and the difference in Gibbs free energy between reactants and products. This idea is huge by itself, and now you're telling me there are five more Sigh. Another day another dollar. The 7 Scientific Practices of AP Chemistry These seven "scientific practices" represent skills that students are expected to learn in AP Chemistry. Many of these relate to correct implementation of the scientific method in a lab context. They're especially tied to the "Guided Inquiry" labs, where students work independently to plan and conduct experiments. #1: The student can use representations and models to communicate scientific phenomena and solve scientific problems. #2: The student can use mathematics appropriately. #3: The student can engage in scientific questioning to extend thinking or to guide investigations within the context of the AP course. #4: The student can plan and implement data collection strategies in relation to a particular scientific question. [Note: Data can be collected from many different sources, e.g., investigations, scientific observations, the findings of others, historic reconstruction, and/or archived data.] #5: The student can perform data analysis and evaluation of evidence. #6: The student can work with scientific explanations and theories. #7: The student is able to connect and relate knowledge across various scales, concepts, and representations in and across domains. AP Chemistry Curricular Requirements The curricular requirements are concrete statements of expectations for the AP Chemistry course. These include requirements for the types of materials teachers must use in class, the structural framework of the course, the opportunities students should receive, and the percentage of class time devoted to labs. The course must use a recently published (within the past ten years) college-level chemistry textbook. The course must be structured around the Enduring Understandings within the Big Ideas as described in the AP Chemistry curriculum framework. Students should have opportunities outside of laboratory investigations to meet the learning objectives within each of the big ideas in the AP Chemistry curriculum. Students have the opportunity to connect their knowledge of chemistry and science to major societal or technological components to help them become scientifically literate citizens. Labs make up 25 percent of the instructional time at minimum and include at least 16 hands-on experiments. Lab investigations allow students to apply the seven science practices, and at least 6 of the 16 labs are conducted in a guided-inquiry format. "Guided inquiry" labs put students at the center of the learning process, encouraging them to pose, develop, and experimentally investigate questions (self-generated or supplied). Other more traditional labs are teacher-directed, which means that teachers provide not only the questions for investigation, but also set procedures and data collection strategies for student use. The course provides opportunities for students to develop, record, and maintain evidence of their verbal, written, and graphic communication skills through lab reports, summaries of literature or scientific investigations, and oral, written, and graphic presentations. Keep in mind that it takes a while for most students to learn how to hold presentation materials in ways that don't completely obscure their faces. Work on it. You'll get there, buddy. What Does an AP Chemistry Syllabus Look Like? The following is a summary of a sample syllabus supplied by the College Board that goes through all the units that would be taught in a standard AP Chemistry course. It also provides the number of class periods allotted for each unit. In this example, the class periods are 52 minutes long. You can read the full syllabus here, and there are also a few more sample syllabi on this page! Course Materials Primary Textbook Zumdahl, Steven and Susan Zumdahl. Chemistry, Eighth Edition. Belmont CA: Cengage Learning, 2012. Other Resources Used The College Board. AP Chemistry Guided Inquiry Experiments: Applying the Science Practices. 2013. Demmin, Peter. AP Chemistry, Fifth Edition. New York: DS Marketing Systems Inc., 2005. Vonderbrink, Sally. Laboratory Experiments for AP Chemistry. Batavia: Flinn Scientific, 2001. Randall, Jack. Advanced Chemistry with Vernier. Oregon: Vernier Software and Technology, 2004. Holmquist, Dan and Donald Volz. Chemistry with Calculators. Oregon: Vernier Software and Technology, 2003. Beran, Jo Allan. Laboratory Principles of General Chemistry, Seventh Edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2004. Unit 1: Chemistry Fundamentals 12 Class Periods 10 Problem sets 2 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Scientific method Classification of matter Nomenclature and formulas of binary compounds Polyatomic ions and other compounds Determination of atomic masses Mole concept Percent composition Empirical and molecular formula Writing chemical equations and drawn representations Balancing chemical equations Applying mole concept to chemical equations (stoichiometry) Determining limiting reactants, theoretical and percent yield of reactions Labs Math and Measurement in ScienceStudents learn how to measure mass and volume with varied pieces of equipment and focus on the accuracy of those pieces of equipment in their calculation and determination of significant figures. Students also determine the identity of an unknown organic liquid using density determination. Guided Inquiry Lab: Physical and Chemical PropertiesStudents are given the materials to conduct various procedures. They construct a procedure for each of the eight changes to be observed, have their procedures approved by the instructor, and then carry out the procedures. The data collected is used to develop a set of criteria for determining whether a given change is chemical or physical. Stoichiometry LabStudents determine the correct mole ratio of reactants in an exothermic reaction by mixing different amounts of reactants and graphing temperature changes. Unit 2: Types of Chemical Equations 8 Class Periods 4 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Electrolytes and properties of water Molarity and preparation of solutions Precipitation reactions and solubility rules Acid-Base reactions and formation of a salt by titration Balancing redox reactions Simple redox titrations Gravimetric calculations Labs pH Titration LabStudents perform a titration and then determine the concentration of an HCl solution by using a potentiometric titration curve and finding the equivalence point. Data is graphed in a graphing program. Bleach LabStudents perform redox titrations to determine the concentration of hypochlorite in household bleach. Online Redox Titration ActivityOnline lab simulation where students can manipulate various factors to influence a redox titration. Unit 3: AP Style Net Ionic Equations 8 Class Periods 6 Problem Sets 4 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Redox and single replacement reactions Double replacement reactions Combustion reactions Addition reactions Decomposition reactions Labs Copper Reaction LabStudents perform a series of reactions, starting with copper and ending with copper. Students then calculate percent recovered. Unit 4: Gas Laws 8 Class Periods 5 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Measurement of gases General gas laws - Boyle, Charles, Combined, and Ideal Dalton's Law of partial pressure Molar volume of gases and stoichiometry Graham's Law Kinetic Molecular Theory Real gases and deviation from ideal gas law Graham's law demonstration Labs Molecular Mass of a Volatile LiquidStudents use the Dumas method for determination of the molar mass of an unknown volatile liquid. Unit 5: Thermochemistry 8 Class Periods 5 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Law of conservation of energy, work, and internal energy Endothermic and exothermic reactions Potential energy diagrams Calorimetry, heat capacity, and specific heat Hess's Law Heat of formation/combustion Bond energies Labs Guided Inquiry Lab: Hess's LawStudents perform a series of reactions and calculate enthalpy, proving Hess's law. Activity: Online Heating and Cooling Curve Simulations Unit 6: Atomic Structure and Periodicity 12 Class periods 9 Problem sets 4 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Electron configuration and the Aufbau principle Valence electrons and Lewis dot structures Periodic trends Table arrangement based on electronic properties Properties of light and study of waves Atomic spectra of hydrogen and energy levels Quantum mechanical model Quantum theory and electron orbitals Orbital shape and energies Spectroscopy Labs Spectroscopy LabStudents look at a series of emission spectra and determine the identity of an unknown. They will also receive and analyze IR and mass spectroscopy data. Activity: Periodic Table Dry LabStudents graph values for atomic radius, electronegativity, and ionization energy to predict trends and explain the organization of the periodic table. Unit 7: Chemical Bonding Class Periods 8 Problem Sets 4 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Lewis Dot structures Resonance structures and formal charge Bond polarity and dipole moments VSEPR models and molecular shape Polarity of molecules Lattice energies Hybridization Molecular orbitals and diagrams Labs Guided Inquiry: Bonding LabStudents experimentally investigate ionic and molecular substances deducing properties of their bonds in the process. Guided Inquiry: Investigation of SolidsStudents investigate types of solids using various experimental techniques. Activity: Atomic Theory Dry Lab (Students make drawings of a series of molecules and, from those drawings, predict geometry, hybridization, and polarity) Unit 8: Liquids, Solids, and Solutions 6 Class Periods 4 Problem Sets 2 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Structure and bonding Metals, network, and molecular Ionic, hydrogen, London, van der Waals Vapor pressure and changes in state Heating and cooling curves Composition of solutions Colloids and suspensions Separation techniques Effect on biological systems Labs Solution Preparation LabStudents make solutions of specified concentrations gravimetrically and by dilution. Solution concentrations will be checked for accuracy using a spectrophotometer. Vapor Pressure of Liquids LabStudents measure the vapor pressure of ethanol at different temperatures to determine ∆H. Activity: Effect on Biological SystemsStudents examine a demonstration size model of DNA or an alpha helix, and use their fingers to identify which atoms / base pairs are particularly involved in hydrogen bonding within the molecule, causing the helical structure. Students then discuss how the increased UV light because of ozone depletion can cause chemical reactions and thus mutations and disruption of hydrogen bonding. Unit 9: Kinetics 9 Class Periods 3 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Rates of reactions Factors that affect rates of reactions/ collision theory Reaction Pathways Rate equation determination Rate constants Mechanisms Method of initial rates Integrated rate laws Activation energy and Boltzmann distribution Labs Guided Inquiry: Determining Order of a (Crystal Violet) ReactionUsing colorimetry and Beer's law, students determine the order of a reaction and its rate law. Determining the Activation Energy of a ReactionStudents use the same set-up as in the crystal violet lab, but, this time, varying temperature to calculate the activation energy with the use of the Arrhenius equation. Activity: Online Kinetics ActivityUsing a web-based simulation, students will study the elementary steps of a mechanism and how it relates to reaction rate and collision theory. Unit 10: General Equilibrium 6 Class Periods 4 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Characteristics and conditions of chemical equilibrium Equilibrium expression derived from rates Factors that affect equilibrium Le Chatelier's principle The equilibrium constant Solving equilibrium problems Labs Determination of a Kc with Varied Initial ConcentrationsStudents use a spectrophotometer to determine the Kc of a series of reactions. Activity: Online Gas Phase Equilibrium ActivityIn the online inquiry activity, students are able to manipulate the environment and produce stresses that verify the tendency of Le Chatelier's principle. Unit : Acids and Bases 8 Class Periods 4 Problem sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Definition and nature of acids and bases Kw and the pH scale pH of strong and weak acids and bases Polyprotic acids pH of salts Structure of Acids and Bases Labs Determination of a Ka by Half TitrationStudents do a titration in which  ½ of the weak acid titrated is neutralized (aka midpoint), and then the Ka is determined. Unit 12: Buffers, Ksp, and Titrations Class Periods 6 Problem Sets 4 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Characteristics and capacity of buffers Titrations and pH curves Choosing Acid-Base Indicators pH and solubility Ksp Calculations and Solubility Product Labs Guided Inquiry: Types of TitrationsStudents investigate titration curves by doing titrations of different combinations of weak and strong acids and bases. Guided Inquiry: Preparation of a BufferGiven a selection of chemicals, students prepare a buffer of a given pH. Molar Solubility and Determination of KspStudents find the Ksp of calcium hydroxide doing a potentiometric titration with the addition of methyl orange indicator for verification. Unit 13: Thermodynamics 10 Class Periods 5 Problem Sets 3 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Laws of thermodynamics Spontaneous process and entropy Spontaneity, enthalpy, and free energy Free energy Free energy and equilibrium Rate and Spontaneity Labs Solubility and Determination of ΔH °, ΔS °, ΔG ° of Calcium HydroxideStudents collect and analyze data to determine ΔH °, ΔS °, and ΔG ° of calcium hydroxide. Unit 14: Electrochemistry 8 Class Periods 5 Problem Sets 4 Quizzes 1 Exam Topics Balancing redox equations Electrochemical cells and voltage The Nernst equation Spontaneous and non-spontaneous equations Chemical applications Labs Voltaic Cell LabStudents find the reduction potentials of a series of reactions using voltaic cells/multi-meters and build their own reduction potential table. Dilutions will be made, and the Nernst equation will also be tested. Final AP Review 16 Class Periods 4 Quizzes 4 Exams Topics Review of ALL topics 4 AP-Style Review Exams Mock AP Test Labs The Green Crystal LabA series of labs completed over a 4-week period. Students work at their own pace in pairs. The goal of this lab is to determine the empirical formula of a ferrioxalate crystal. It includes the following experiments: Experiment 1: Synthesis of the crystal Experiment 2: Standardization of KMnO4 by redox titration Experiment 3: Determination of % oxalate in crystal by redox titration Experiment 4: Standardization of NaOH by acid/base titration Experiment 5: Determination of % K+ and Fe3+ by ion exchange chromatography and a double equivalence point titration Experiment 6: Determination of the % water in the hydrated crystal Green crystals!!! Actually, the green crystals for the lab look even cooler than that. Teaching Tips for AP Chemistry These are some tips I came up with for AP Chemistry teachers based on my experiences as a student in the course. I struggled a lot with chemistry in high school (partially because my teacher wasn't very good), so here are a few things that I think would have helped me out at the time. Tip #1: Do Plenty of Sample Problems in Class (and Go Over Homework Thoroughly) When I was in AP Chemistry, I had a hard time understanding how to solve complex multi-step problems. I often couldn't figure them out on my own, even when I had read examples in the textbook and seen my teacher go through similar examples. I'd advise teachers to do as many sample problems as possible in class. It's important to give students background information, but walking through sample problems step-by-step is the most valuable practical instruction you can provide. You should also go through homework problem sets in class so that students can see exactly where they made mistakes and why. Encourage students to try redoing the problems with the new information they've learned to reinforce the correct methods. Tip #2: Offer Extra Help Sessions Because AP Chemistry is such a challenging class, it's likely that many students will be interested in extra help outside of the designated class period. Although students should be encouraged to take the initiative in asking for help, I think it's also a good idea to set up a designated time when you'll be available after school. Block out a couple of after-school hours one or two days a week, and encourage students to come to you with any questions or concerns they have about the class. You can also set aside times for review sessions before each exam that all students are encouraged to attend. These could even include chemistry-themed review games and competitions (if your students are true nerds they will love this). Tip #3: Give Students Real AP Practice Tests To prepare effectively for the AP test, students need to get used to the format and timing. As you get closer to the exam, administer a few mock AP tests. Translate grades to where they would fall on the AP scale so that students have a better idea of where they're scoring and how much they need to study to reach their goals. This will help give them more motivation to study and force any stragglers to get serious about improving their scores. Grades on real AP practice tests will help light a fire under students who have a tendency to procrastinate and cram. Tips for AP Chemistry Students If, on the other hand you're an AP Chemistry student, you may find these tips for doing well in this challenging class helpful. Tip #1: Pay Attention in Class Obviously, right? Well, not necessarily; zoning out during lectures is something that we're all guilty of doing because we're human beings. However, this is a class where you really, really need to pay attention to your teacher's explanations. It's hard to self-teach chemistry because you're not just memorizing facts, you're learning how to do different types of calculations and navigate a bunch of new terminologies. If you can only pay attention to one thing, make it the example problems that your teacher does in class. Take notes on the solution steps so you can refer to them in the future and refresh your memory. Tip #2: Ask Lots of Questions (and Get Help If You Need It!) If you don't understand something, get clarification as soon as possible. AP Chemistry isn't a class where you can let a few things fall by the wayside and still get by. The information builds on itself, so it's critical that you have a strong understanding of every concept. Gaps in knowledge will come back to bite you in the end! If you don't feel like you're getting enough of an explanation in class, don't be afraid to ask your teacher for extra help. Tip #3: Don't Fall Behind It will be tempting to say "oh, I don't actually need to do this problem set" or "eh, I'll read this chapter later." But if you do that too many times, before you know it you'll have no idea what's happening in class. This course moves very quickly from one complex concept to the next, so you can't afford to fall behind. As I mentioned, concepts build on one another. If you find yourself slipping and losing touch with what's going on in the course, ask your teacher for extra help as soon as possible to resolve the issue. Tip #4: Get a Review Book, and Review Concepts Throughout the Year Review books can be very helpful for AP Chemistry because they're well-organized catalogs of all the different concepts you will learn in the course. There's so much packed into the curriculum that I'd recommend buying a book so you have something to ground yourself as you're looking back through the material. You can use the review book for practice problems and AP review sessions throughout the year. Every couple of months, do a review of everything you've learned so far to keep the information at the front of your mind. Here's my list of the best review books for AP Chemistry to give you a lil head start. Review books will lay out the structure of the course more clearly for you so that you don't get lost in your notes! Conclusion To recap, the AP Chemistry syllabus revolves around six "Big Ideas," which are main themes that cover more specific concepts called "Enduring Understandings." Each AP Chemistry course is expected to give students the skills they need to understand these larger themes and connect them to a basic factual knowledge of the ins and outs of chemistry. Additionally, an effective course syllabus provides assignments that enable students to master the seven "Scientific Practices" established by the course guidelines. It will also adhere to the rules established by the Curriculum Requirements. A few tips I would recommend for teaching this course are: #1: Do Lots of Sample Problems in Class#2: Offer Built-In Extra Help Sessions#3: Administer Official Practice AP Tests Some tips I would recommend for students who want to do well in AP Chemistry are: #1: Pay Attention in Class#2: Ask Questions, and Get Help if You Need It#3: Avoid Slacking Off and Falling Behind#4: Use a Review Book to Supplement Class Materials AP Chemistry is a fast-paced class that covers complex concepts, but with a logically formatted syllabus and a concerted effort from both students and teachers, the course can be an enlightening introduction to a fundamental aspect of how the world works! What's Next? Is AP Chemistry really as challenging as some people think? Read this article for a detailed examination of the difficulty level of the course (and exam). Need help preparing for the final exam? Check out my ultimate study guide for AP Chemistry! If you're taking AP Chemistry, chances are that you're applying to colleges that require or recommend submission of SAT Subject Test scores. Learn more about the differences between AP Tests and SAT Subject Tests and whether one is more important than the other. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

MAR Income Statement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

MAR Income Statement - Research Paper Example However, there has been a lot of stiff competition within the international organizations that deal with hospitality operations but the Marriott International Incorporation has maintained standards of being among the few that maintain a competitive advantage (Hartman & Werhane, 2009). The core principle that facilitates the great returns or rather success to the Marriott International Incorporation is the element of effective top management. This majorly consists of the board of directors that are having sufficient knowledge in the line of hospitality management and supervision. Due to this focus and teamwork, the organization still looks forward to a great establishment thus economic growth and development. The board of directors, including the general manager or chief executive officer, has very defined roles and responsibilities within a business organization. Fundamentally, it is the role of the board of directors to hire the general manager of the business and evaluate the overall direction and strategy of the business (Finance.yahoo.com). The general manager is responsible for hiring all of the other employees and overseeing the day-to-day operation of the business. On the contrary, management is not responsible for the overall policy decisions of the business. Some of the major responsibilities of the board of directors include: The process of evaluating, recruiting, supervising, retaining, and compensating the general manager is probably the most important functions of the board of directors. Value-added business boards need to aggressively search for the best possible candidate for this position (Hartman & Werhane, 2014). Actively searching within your industry can lead to the identification of very capable people Directing the Marriot International Incorporation effectively as the board has a strategic function in providing the vision, mission, and goals of the organization. These are often determined in combination with the chief executive officer of the business.

The detection of liver (hepatic carcinoma) image protocol using Research Proposal

The detection of liver (hepatic carcinoma) image protocol using 64-MDCT. The effect of contrast injection technique, patient size and low dose parameters on the image quality - Research Proposal Example The use of CT in detection of the liver has been there for several years. Parameters that control radiation calculation are many. For example, the default solutions, and iteration parameters, are used in most problems. The process of detection using the 64-MDCT requires patients that have lesions that are surgically proven. These patients then will have to undergo through the triple phase 64-MDCT process. The patients will be observed independently. Later, a thorough evaluation of MR and CT imaging process is required. This is done on a lesion-by-lesion point. According to Hayat (2009), the reproductively, negative and positive values and sensitivity are then evaluated. The diagnostic accuracy of the method is assessed against the alternative free response characteristics analysis. The main objective of the project is to develop a simple methodology. This is where users can establish exposure factors that can be practical to patients. This includes the patients with different body weights. The method is used instead of, relying on the current approach of using default values based upon standard sized patient. They developed a simple mAs prediction equation to optimize radiation dose for all patient weight categories. The results showed that patient weight can be a good predictor of required dose. In addition, an agreement can be reached, at a certain noise level, to be acceptable. Moreover, the value could be increased for larger patients. The radiation dose reduction requires the lowering of kV or mA settings, Schoenberg (2007). This will, however, increase the noise when all other settings are kept constant. The mA settings are adjusted continuously until the best results are achieved. The reduction of tube voltage is done. This is a strategy of reducing the dose as the image quality is improved. The attenuation of calcium and iodine levels is increased at lower kV.

The Globalization Of Youth Culture Cultural Studies Essay

The Globalization Of Youth Culture Cultural Studies Essay In their article The Glocalization of Youth Culture: The Global Youth Segment as Structures of Common Difference, Kjeldgaard and Askegaard provide an analysis of global youth cultural consumption based on an empirical study. In our modern life, global teens play an important part in the global culture, and the teenage culture on a global scale reflects a youthful lifestyle and affects the constitution of global culture (Kjeldgaard and Askegaard, 2006). Hence, Kjeldgaard and Askegaards research has a special significance for us to know more about the global youth cultural consumption. From the article the fact can be also found that the young value changes and leads the future trend and fashion. Through the analysis of the global youth segment which may have common difference, readers can have a clear understanding of youth culture. In the article The Production and Consumption of Japanese Culture in The Global Culture Market, the author demonstrates an explicit process of the production and consumption of culture, and presents the fact that Japanese culture crosses national borders and has profoundly influenced the global culture. In the process of economic globalization, local culture crosses boundary and penetrates into other nations. This process can be called cultural globalization (Golstein-Gidoni, 2005). In this article, culture is presented in front of different people as a product, which is an approach for readers to understand the process of culture transfer in globalization. The author focuses on Japanese culture as a global cultural production to explain the global culture market. Meanwhile, both of the two articles demonstrate the fact that in globalization, culture has significant impact on peoples contemporary way of life. The essay will comment the two articles from the following four aspects: th e first one is about material culture and consumerism shaping peoples contemporary way of life; the second one is on cultural and social representations reproduction; the third one mainly analyzes the production and construction of identities through consumer society and global cultural industry; the last one discusses the social ramification of culture industry by addressing the relationship between the consumer and the marketplace. 2, Critical Review Material culture and consumption have a close relationship in the modern world. Due to the special relationship, they affect and shape the modern lifestyle. In the first article, the author shows readers different cultures of young people by comparing the differences of young consumers in Denmark and Greenland. Yong people establish their own culture, and they pursue fashion and have their own values. Young culture affects the lifestyle of young people. Young people advocate fast-paced life and pursue their own lifestyles, because they are deeply affected by the young culture (Abrams, 1959). Although young cultures in the world have some differences, they also have some common grounds that have an impact on young people and shape the lifestyle of young people. In the second article, readers can know more about the Japanese cultures influence on the contemporary way of life. Consumer culture is a culture of life after all. The Japanese lifestyle is different from other countries by th e affect of Japanese culture. Every country has their own culture, which can distinguish them from the other people. Duo to the differences of culture, people may have different lifestyles. Different social representations create different culture of their own, and different culture can also form different social representations. Young people form their own culture. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Coolà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ is popular with young people, and they regard the cool as a fashion. Nowadays, à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Coolà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ culture has become the popular culture between young people. Culture shapes gender, tribal, and ethnic identities as a form of consumption. On the one hand, they have their own music tastes, clothing styles, and media habits, which distinguish them from the other people. On the other hand, young have become a social category, which has been closely related to the development of modernization. Young culture represents the young people, and young people develop the young culture. Japanese culture crosses national borders, which leave a deep impression on the people of other countries (Featherstone, 1990). Because Japanese form a unique culture of their own country , Japanese culture can differ from culture of other countries. Gravity and enthusiasm are often read in the Japanese culture, and they have become the special symbols of Japanese. Consumer society and global cultural industry affect the identities of different people. People share the different culture and they have different consumption in their daily life. Consumer society supplies a positive and fast-paced environment for the young people, and young people have become a social category by the effect of consumer society and global cultural industry (Thomas, 1997). The model of young people gain cultural significance in the early of this century, and the young consumers are lack of responsibilities. As a result, the teenage identity become inevitable a symbol of leisure and hedonic consumption. In the context of cultural globalization, Japan has generated its own Japanese culture, which makes Japanese people different from people of other countries. Japanese culture has given Japanese people special identities that belong to their own. Since post-World War II, young people have been seen as a huge market segment and the new mass popular culture, so more and more social ramifications of culture industry are created by the market segmentation. Marketing industry begins to tap into young by the driving of this cultural viewpoint. As a result, some new sunrise industries enter the market and carry out the strategy of market segmentation. Culture industry can generate all kinds of social ramifications, and young culture is no exception. Japanese culture develops into a special culture industry by the strategy of exporting and importing (Theodore, 1989). In the long process of development, representations of Japanese culture are becoming more and more, such as Japanese art, martial arts, ink painting, tea ceremony, and some of them have become new industries by addressing the relationship between the consumer and the marketplace. 3, conclusion From the two articles some key themes can be found that on the one hand, material culture and consumerism shape contemporary way of life, and culture has a lot to do with the lifestyle of people. On the other hand, material culture such as young culture and Japanese culture can also produce different industries, which are all in the context of cultural globalization. Culture distinguishes people from other people. In the process of cultural globalization, people should resist the invasion of unhealthy culture and study excellent culture, in order to achieve their own development.

Process Writing and Teaching Grammar in Context Essay

From the lowest level of grade towards the prestigious masteral and PhD degrees offered in schools, writing and grammar enhancement never cease to affect the curriculum. Why is this process of teaching repeatedly implicated among students? This is primarily because of the fact that writing is one of the most important and the most widely used skill in any type of profession in the business and industrial sectors of the business world, people who are aiming to become professionals in the future, therefore taking part in the different positions of the said economic industries indeed need to learn the basics towards the complicated notes of becoming a fine writer. Not that writing would be a career for them; however, it would always be a part of their communicative connections with their colleagues if whatever field they might be joined with later on. One of the primary lessons regarding this matter though is the writing process. According to Stone, â€Å"process writing is learning how to write by writing† (1995, 232). Certainly, this means that a student or a particular individual is able to learn the basic principles of writing if he is given a briefing on the procedures of correct writing practice. The said procedures include five main activities that must be considered when one is trying to create a certain written work. The said procedures include: Prewriting- this stage involves the preplanned writing topic of the writer. In this stage the writer aims to prepare himself in the work that he is about to write. He scribbles down the ideas in a certain note trying to collect the data that are needed to support the topics that he aims to propose. Drafting- this stage is the process by which the ideas are written in a away that the writer aims to simply present the ideas that he has with regards the topic he aims to write about. This is just the outcome of the prewritten work, which means it still needs to be revised to be able to meet the needs of actually getting the standard result for the final outcome of the written work. Revising- this is when the writer tries to see the basic errors on the prepared draft and then further assess the work on what ideas need to be rejected and which ones are still needed to be added so as to be able to enhance the impact of the discussion of the topic being presented. Editing- The final revisions are applied in editing the work. The final furnishing of the written job makes it easier for the readers to understand the final output since it would become more focused and certain about the ideas that it tries to imply to the audience of this particular reading material being produced. Publishing- The final output is ready for public reading. After the clarification done on the writing through the first four stages, the reading material that has been produced is now ready for sending the message to the public readers. These fie stages of writing is what the process writing lessons are all about. Schools intend to help the students master these particular stages of writing to help them enhance their capabilities in sending their ideas ort messages to others through written pieces of work. Meanwhile, grammatical learning lessons are also imbedded within the procedures of implying the lessons of process writing within students. However, it is first essential to know what teaching grammar in context means.

The Demise of Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics

The Demise of Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics - Overview The Joads are punished by the law although the law isn't a character. While law doesn't necessarily reflect culture, it remains the expression of a society's values. The law is similarly faceless and does not have any actual characterization. It serves as the official expression of society's approval or disapproval of a person or group of people. Take a look at our Grapes of Wrath essayto find more on the subject of interrelation. They, in this novel are very metaphorical. The Grapes of Wrath is just one of the most significant books in American literature. The inevitable Grapes of Wrath essay will follow, in which you'll be requested to talk about a theme or a number of the symbolism in the job. Therefore, the state government has the massive job of formulating and executing measures to utilise the neighborhood resources to create jobs and supply employment. See how to locate the resource s you want. By means of this literary analysis, you can jump in their lives. And the country's infrastructure crumbles. Why Almost Everything You've Learned About Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics Is Wrong Below are some possible topics that you may want to consider. I hope they also have benefited your students. So far as the students are involved, writing a research paper is among the toughest and frustrating endeavor in their opinion. Therefore, many students and employees decide to obtain cheap essay rather than writing it themselves. Discussion questions will allow you to engage these students and get them talking about various topics within this story. All of them are important to answering this question, and it would be far better incorporate a wide variety of examples as a way to compare and contrast various episodes. The response is apparently very few. There are not any right or wrong answers to these types of questions, which can allow it to be much easier for students to speak up. Why Almost Everything You've Learned About Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics Is Wrong Finish with the way the character relates to others and their function in the novel. You might have liked the book for a story, even though it is surely depressing. The story happened during the calendar year 1930s, also called the Dust Bowl. And this isn't the close of the story yet. The dialogue in the movie is not anything more than a run of expositional monologues developed to spell out the meandering plot. It demonstrates that the ending of the film and the novel are different. Other minor characters, like the Boss or Whit, might be added. These scenes weren't included in the movie. Grapes of Wrath Essay Topics Secrets That No One Else Knows About Speedy tip Ask yourself whether your essay might have been written by somebody who has not followed the TOK class. You may know it in this manner. It's exact and only the thing which is going to be used against me if I'm mistaken. I want to check something. The huge corporations soon bought out nearly all of the land in the Mid-West and lots of families were soon made to make their living by other ways. Many of the folks in the industry followed in their parents' footsteps and aspire to pass the company on to their children and grandkids someday. The land meant more to the farmers than a means to grow cr ops and make a living. Put simply, workers are displayed in the novel as people who don't look at the hard financial ailments. What all you will need is getting the assistance from a specialist and EssaysChief is going to be the expert that you seek out. To put it differently, all that additional information becomes destroyed. Non-Personal Information In some instances, we might collect details about you that isn't personally identifiable. No personally identifiable information which you give us is supplied to them for cookie or web beacon usage, so it is impossible for them to personally identify you with that information on the internet website. Sairy falls ill at the very first camp where the 2 families stay and remains there with the remainder of her loved ones, facing the prospect of arrest for trespassing. Be aware that the turtle's best obstacles are automobiles and machines that may easily end its life. When it is found this work isn't your own you're in danger of. Work is nearly impossible to locate or pays such a meager wage a family's full day's work cannot get a good meal.

Is Legal Reasoning Different from Political Reasoning - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 3046 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Tags: Political Essay Did you like this example? Theory of Law Justice Assignment Question: Is legal reasoning essentially different from the reasoning of politicians? If not, why not? If it is essentially different, in what way is it different? Justify your answer by reference to the views of relevant legal theorists. Introduction It is noteworthy that the legal and political systems are fundamentally different in the first place due to the diverse perspectives of the world, and they have developed into two separate entities with their own purposes and model in the society. [1] Therefore, it is unlikely that they share common philosophy and practices. However, like most other disciplines in the society, sometimes law and politics overlap to achieve a common goal, sometimes they complement each other and at other times, they contradict each other. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Is Legal Reasoning Different from Political Reasoning?" essay for you Create order For example, the differentiation of adversaries has no ground in the law and politics dominates over the rule of law when this occurs. [2] Therefore, the goals, philosophy and practices in both systems do not entirely agree, hence reasoning in both systems must be different also. Tradition view The conventional view can be described as that political reasoning features consideration to political parties, social movements, public media, the legislature and the government, and politicians create their own normative ideology that defines and guides the behaviour of the society. [3] James defines legal reasoning as an approach employed by legal officials to identify and apply legal rules to circumstances in order to solve legal cases, and that there are unique characteristics of legal reasoning which set it apart to other forms of reasoning, such characteristics include laws and precedents.[4] The key in legal reasoning, according to Sunstein, is that legal officials are uninterested in all-encompassing principles, they disagree on intrinsic values but are authorised with power to produce judicial solutions to multidisciplinary issues based on incomplete theorised agreements. [5] It is not necessary for politicians to consult history and polities set by previously elected pol itical parties, but to follow personal values, moral beliefs and ideology of their political parties, and they can make adjustments to policies or turn them around.[6] The traditional view is that judges, on the other hand, follow the doctrine of stare decisis and the common law tradition. [7] This means that they are bound to make judicial decisions based on three obvious legal reference points, namely the statutes, precedents and other legal resources.[8] It is obvious that under majority of circumstances judges are able to solve court cases consulting these reference points, however there are times when these reference points do not immediately present satisfactory solutions for certain cases. This essay will examine two situations that judges may face in courts, namely, (1) when existing rules are unclear on circumstances not encountered before, and (2) when application of a rule clearly leads to injustice. When these situations arise, can and do judges turn to political reasoni ng based on own morality, values and beliefs? Can they make adjustments to existing laws and can they make new laws? Shaping of modern day legal system The latter question à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“can judges make adjustments to existing laws and can they make new laws?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  sprouts empirical and conceptual answers. Empirical observations is that both politicians and judges have contributed to the shaping of the legal system today, and will continuously shape it as our society changes, just in different ways. [9] Hayek observed that there are two factors in law making: the common law approach and legislation. The common law approach is the bottom-up method facilitated by judges as a result of reactive trial-and-error to achieve justice in the court at ground zero. [10] The legislation is a top-down method of creating laws without gaining public consent. [11] Hayek argues that the common law approach yields gradual and impactful improvement while legislations tend to bring sudden and rapid changes with targeted and short-term outcomes. [12] Therefore, the law does change and that both judges and politicians play a part, only in dif ferent geographical locations, time and with different approach. Conceptual answers of how judges should reason in adjudication and to what extent are proposed by different legal theorists, they have strengthened the nature of legal reasoning and the role and authority of judges and these views will be discussed to gain insight to the former question, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“can and do judges turn to political reasoning based on own morality, values and beliefs?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  in situations (1) when existing rules are unclear on circumstances not encountered before, and (2) when the application of a rule clearly leads to injustice. Theories of adjudication The way that legal officials approach in shaping the legal system in courts is proposed by many legal theorists. Due to the fact that legal officials carry out this task in courts using legal reasoning pursuing resolutions on court cases, the approach is termed theories of adjudication by Hart. Formalism Formalists answer the question of whether judges should turn to using non-legal principles when the application of a rule clearly leads to injustice in unambiguous cases. Formalists are influenced by democratic values[13] and they make a normative claim that judges should make judicial decisions entirely based on black letter laws whenever it is clear and applicable, regardless if it yields irrational and unmerited outcomes. [14] Formalism has not accounted for cases that are obscure when legal resources exhaust. Atiyah maintains that when straightforward application of law leads to injustice the Parliament is still the only entitled body to change the law.[15] The disadvantage of this approach is apparent that interpreting rigid rules acontextually is a nave activity that neglects the uniqueness of each court case, and formalist judges are criticised for not performing their best duty to achieve justice. [16] One advantage of a formalistic approach illustrated by Wellington is tha t judges must be neutral towards the decision-making because morality, values and beliefs because these principles are only transient, meaning that they are only best at one point of time and may not be best at another. [17] Similarly, Schauer disapproves allowing judges to deviate from black letter rules when the rules are clearly applicable because judges often makes more mistakes when permitted to interpret and apply clear rules freely. [18] He also emphasises that the realism trend threatens the authority of legal rules and reduces predictability, subjecting the public to uncertainty of whether certain behaviours are lawful or not. [19] Langdell was a formalist whom puts less emphasis on judges always follow clear rules, but promotes that right judicial decisions can be made logically by deductive application of the law to known facts. [20] Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s doctrine of discretion It is Hart whom distinguished the theory of adjudication apart from theory of law. Hart provides guidance as a positivist to both situations when existing rules are unclear on circumstances not encountered before, and when the application of a rule clearly leads to injustice. Hart terms the first scenario as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“easy casesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“core casesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and the second situation challenges in solving à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hard casesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“penumbraà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . [21] He terms this phenomenon as a gap in the law. [22] In easy cases, Hart argues that the linguistic meaning is self-explanatory and no interpretation is needed.[23] Bell terms Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory of adjudication in hard cases as the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“interstitial legislator modelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ .[24] In hard cases, Hart argues that judges are free to interpret the law to his or her discretion. [25] In fact, he says that judges are obliged to find reso urces outside of the legal references points when challenged with a penumbral situation when rules do not seem to be applicable immediately or become unclear in their linguistic context.[26] Hart does not rule out that moral principles may be of use in these situations when existing legal references exhaust or become indeterminate, although he maintains that moral principles are not necessarily included in judicial decision-making. [27] However, Hart says that the judgesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ discretion is not arbitrary and not without constraints. He or she must practice reasoning similar to politicians when selecting non-legal rules or standards to be used. [28] In making this normative claim, Hart admits that most of the time the result of the judgesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ discretion are adjustments of laws in the existing legal framework and not law reforms. [29] Fuller disagrees with the peculiarity between core and penumbra as proposed by Hart and expresses that rules always consist of purposes behind its language and judges are always relying on the purposes to make decisions in so termed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"easyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ cases anyway, there is no need to source reference outside law when solutions are available within law itself.[30] Therefore, it is consistent for and the responsibility of judges to discover meaning behind laws applicable to all cases. [31] Fuller argues that law is not paired with their language but their underlying purposes and that judges intelligently interpret and obey to these purposes. [32] Schauer disagrees about context ambiguity and emphasises that language has acontextual meaning embedded in itself and it is possible that its meaning is communicated effectively without ambiguity to those who share the same language competency, other times it may render to vagueness due to its indeterminacy but not due to its linguistic flaws.[33] He argues that the language of law is frequently suf ficient in producing determinate solutions and that even when it is vague it does not suggest immediately that the answer lies elsewhere. [34] Dworkin disagrees with the need of judges to use political reasoning when legal rules do not suffice and that they are creating new laws, they are merely declaring a new way of applying existing laws. [35] He argues that Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s permission of judges to make new laws is unfair as defendants are then subjected to new laws retroactively and these new rules hold parties liable without their prior knowledge. [36] Fullerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s purposive approach As mentioned above, Fuller rejects Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s distinction between easy and hard cases and his claim that rules can be applied as its plain linguistic meaning. [37] Fuller asserts that rules are always identified with their purpose and not by their language, no matter in easy or hard cases. [38] Therefore, for Fuller, when existing rules are unclear on circumstances not encountered before, and when the application of a rule clearly leads to injustice, the straightforward answer is to seek the purposes of the rules and not judge in contrary. Schauer argues that there are still acontextual meanings in rules that can be understood in its plain language by similar group of people. [39] He agrees with Hart that rules maybe obscure generating hard cases and that sometimes judges neglect clear meanings and make mistakes. [40] Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the rights modelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Dworkins approach to adjudication is termed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“interpretative approachà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and its essence lies in his defence of the traditional view regarding the role of judges and his supplement theory that judges are not to make new laws but to identify pre-existing law. [41] His later work, the theory of law as integrity, aims to fuse positive doctrinal theory and normative theory so that judges interpret the meaning of the law the best that it can be. [42] Bell terms Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory of adjudication, irrespective of the type of cases faced, as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the rights modelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , in which he stresses that judges can develop new principles for existing rules but that the fundamental difference between judges and legislators is that judges focus on peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights and the legislators concern public interest. [43] With such focus on peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights, the protection of the freedom of individuals is maximise d even though the result may not be desirable for public interest. [44] In order to protect the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right, Dworkin promotes that judges are entitled to interpret the rules according to their principles, including morality, values and beliefs. As an anti-positivist, he believes that moral principles are necessary behind every rule while agreeing with Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s proposed primary and secondary rules. [45] Therefore, Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view agrees with Fullerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"purposive approachà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  that there is no such categorisation of easy and hard case because the approach to adjudication is the same. Dworkin and Fuller claims descriptively that judges in fact do not distinguish their role in adjudication of easy and hard cases, they always interpret, or discover the purpose behind the law according to their best discretion and apply them to cases in new ways. [46] This is also one of his criticisms towards Hartà ƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interstitial legislator model. Criticisms of Dworkin are included in the remarks about the ideal judge he illustrates, Hercules, is actually making new law in core cases freely as oppose to be drawing legal principles from the rules.[47] The predictability and applicability of Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory is also challenged because of the judgesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ free adjudication and the fact that most cases are of the easy kind.[48] Finnis criticises Dworkin similar to Wellington made to positivism [49]in what fit with the past and moral value may not be consistent, there is no right answers to dispute, only the most appropriate chosen at the time by the judge. [50] Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view of the existence of right answers to legal questions was challenged by moral pluralism in which there is no right or wrong answers but the most appropriate answers at time. Even then, the decision made is imperfect and may generate regrets anyhow. [51] Dw orkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory that laws possess moral values also falls short in the case of wicked legal system. Dworkin is unable to explain if these laws are not enforceable and why. The consensus model The consensus model cited by Bell mainly describes an attitude judges should possess when making judicial decisions in courts. There are two main characteristics of this attitude. Firstly, Bell draws the idea from Baron Greene that the attitude of merely adapting principles to distinct situations is to be maintained and ultimately legislations and policies remain unchanged. [52] Secondly, judges are accountable representatives of the public and hence they propose these adaptations from the bottom-up approach, unlike policy-makers who see from the superintendentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perspective and create laws using the top-down methodology. [53] There are no grounds for law reform at the judicial level, instead the adaptation of laws overtime in a development process building on the existing legal framework. [54] Therefore, when application of clear rules to obvious cases leads to injustice, or that when legal resources exhaust, the judge seeks to make decisions based on existing law s and harmony. The weakness of this model is that judges are merely a small pool of selected people of a pluralistic society and they are unable to truly represent the world at large. [55] Realism The most renounced realism supporters are Felix Cohen, Jerome Frank, Karl Llwellyn and Herman Oliphant. [56] Realistsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ sceptical view to the determinacy of the law leads to their theory of adjudication that judges have the ultimately authority to make decisions based on non-legal resources and to supersede legal rules. [57] Realists therefore support that rules are supplementary and act merely as predictions when plain application of these rules leads to injustice, or when there is no rule available for new situations. [58] They disapprove Langdellà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s notion that legal rules always derive correct outcome and regard laws as mythical and are insignificant in judicial decision-making. [59] Furthermore, they strongly opinionated that laws are in fact incompetent to solely depend on in courts. [60] Realists are similar to Austin in taking the reductionist approach in theory of law, and in identifying law with what the sovereign commands, but Austinà ¢Ã¢ ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s sovereign lawmaker is the legislature while realistsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ sovereign lawmaker is judiciary. [61] Hart accuses realists of neglecting the normative conviction of rules that at least must be internalised by legal officials, and of their implication that courts do not make mistakes. [62] Dworkin also holds an unfavourable charge to realismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s result-driven and pragmatic approach to judicial decision-making. [63] As highlighted by Geoffrey de Q Walker, realists need to justify if the value of judges is acceptable, and to explain the power-conferring rule to judges who are not elected like politicians. [64] Conclusion There are apparent differences between legal reasoning and political reasoning in judicial decision-making and the nature and level of differences have been argued over decades by legal philosophers. Some notable theories emerged were formalism, Hartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s doctrine of discretion, Fullerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s purposive approach, Dworkinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the rights modelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , the consensus model and realism. Bibliography John Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Press, 1983) Miro Cerar, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Relationship Between Law and Politicsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2009) 15(1) Annual Survey of International Comparative Law Joanathan Crowe, Legal Theory (Thomson Reuters, 2nd ed, 2014) Nickolas James, Rachael Field, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Thinking skills: Legal Reasoningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in The New Lawyer (John Wiley Sons, 1st ed, 2013) Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) Anthony J. Sebok, Legal Positivism in American Jurisprudence (Cambridge University Press, 1998) Lawrence Solum, Positive and Normative Legal Theory (9 June 2013) Legal Theory Lexicon , https://lsolum.typepad.com/legal_theory_lexicon/2003/12/legal_theory_le.html Cass R Sunstein, Legal Reasoning and Political Conflict (Oxford University Press, 1st ed, 1996) [1] Miro Cerar, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Relationship Between Law and Politicsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2009) 15(1) Annual Survey of International Comparative Law 19, 20. [2] Ibid 19. [3] Ibid 20-1. [4] Nickolas James, Rachael Field, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Thinking skills: Legal Reasoningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in The New Lawyer (John Wiley Sons, 1st ed, 2013) 267. [5] Cass R Sunstein, Legal Reasoning and Political Conflict (Oxford University Press, 1st ed, 1996) 191. [6] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 60. [7] Joanathan Crowe, Legal Theory (Thomson Reuters, 2nd ed, 2014) 110-2. [8] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 60. [9] Joanathan Crowe, Legal Theory (Thomson Reuters, 2nd ed, 2014) 110-1. [10] Ibid. [11] Ibid. [12] Ibid 111-2. [13] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 146. [14] Ibid 144. [15] Ibid 148. [16] Ibid 145. [17] Anthony J. Sebok, Legal Positivism in American Jurisprudence (Cambridge University Press, 1998) 194. [18] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 146. [19] Ibid. [20] Ibid 184. [21] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 136-7. [22] Ibid 137. [23] Ibid 62. [24] John Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Press, 1983) 17. [25] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 148. [26] Ibid 136-7. [27] Ibid 137. [28] John Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Press, 1983) 17. [29] Ibid. [30] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 138. [31] Ibid 142 [32] Ibid 143-4. [33] Ibid 140 [34] Ibid 140-1 [35] Ibid 149. [36] Ibid 145. [37] Ibid 137. [38] Ibid. [39] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 140. [40] Ibid 141. [41] Ibid 60. [42] Lawrence Solum, Positive and Normative Legal Theory (9 June 2013) Leg al Theory Lexicon , https://lsolum.typepad.com/legal_theory_lexicon/2003/12/legal_theory_le.html [43] John Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Press, 1983) 16-7. [44] Ibid. [45] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 150. [46] Ibid 145. [47] Ibid 175. [48] Ibid. [49] Anthony J. Sebok, Legal Positivism in American Jurisprudence (Cambridge University Press, 1998) 194. [50] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 180. [51] Ibid. [52] John Bell, Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Press, 1983) 10-13. [53] Ibid. [54] Ibid 13. [55] Ibid. [56] Denise Meyerson, Jurisprudence (Oxford University Press, 2011) 183. [57] Ibid 183-5, 191. [58] Ibid 183-7. [59] Ibid 185. [60] Ibid 188. [61] Ibid 186. [62] Ibid 187. [63] Ibid 196-7. [64] Ibid 197.